PAKET CARE UNTUK MEMBANGKITKAN KEMBALI SEMANGAT DI PERUSAHAAN ANDA

Apakah perusahaan anda sedang mengalami penciutan usaha, kewalahan dalam menghadapi perubahan teknologi, rendahnya moral karyawan, dan suasana saling "sikut" di antara sesama karyawan?

Bila ya, maka anda tergabung bersama dengan banyak perusahaan lain di dunia sekarang ini. Survey yang dilakukan oleh Roper menemukan bahwa moral karyawan dan kepuasan kerja di masa sekarang ini berada pada titik terrendah semenjak Roper melakukan survey beberapa dekade lalu.

Banyak perusahaan telah begitu banyak memusatkan perhatiannya untuk mengembangkan sistem dan proses, namun mereka melupakan faktor manusia di perusahaan mereka. Dan hasilnya, banyak karyawannya terbebani dengan perasaan takut, tidak percaya, stress, perasaan tidak memiliki kekuatan, dan kehilangan harapan.

Agar tetap bisa bertahan di masa sulit, kita harus membangkitkan kembali semangat untuk memiliki komitmen, harga diri, dan cara pandang baru yang akan meningkatkan produktivitas dan profit.

Dalam suasana yang penuh persaingan ini, perusahaan yang benar-benar sukses adalah perusahaan yang memiliki karyawan yang bekerja keras, pintar, dan di atas semua itu, penuh antusiasme.

Saya menemukan beberapa faktor dalam berkomunikasi yang hidup di perusahaan berbagai bidang usaha di seluruh penjuru dunia, yang menyebabkan mereka senantiasa memiliki semangat tinggi, yaitu CARE:

C = CREATIVE COMMUNICATION
Chicago Tribune melaporkan studinya baru-baru ini yang menunjukkan bahwa rata-rata seorang karyawan menghabiskan 50 jam dalam seminggu untuk melakukan komunikasi dengan berbagai cara. Sebagian besar dari kita dibombardir oleh tumpukan kertas, ratusan pesan email, atau voice mail. Dan satu-satunya cara agar pesan kita dapat sampai dan didengar oleh karyawan adalah dengan mengirimkan pesan yang mengejutkan orang. Semakin tinggi kreativitas kita dalam mengkomunikasikan pesan, maka semakin besar kesempatan pesan tersebut diperhatikan orang.
Penting sekali untuk diingat bahwa kita selalu melakukan interaksi dalam dua aspek. Pertama, aspek bisnis (business level), dimana kita berusaha untuk menyampaikan pesan tujuan interaksi kita. Kedua, aspek manusia (human level), dimana kita berusaha menggugah perasaan penerima pesan. Semua ini dilakukan dalam setiap bentuk komunikasi, baik secara tatap muka, eletronik, maupun tertulis.

Tiga pertanyaan berikut patut dipertimbangkan saat menyampaikan pesan anda:
1. Apakah informasi tersebut akan dapat disampaikan dengan jelas dan akurat? (Business Level)
2. Apakah penerima pesan memiliki perasaan yang baik pada kita/perusahaan? (Human Level)
3. Apakah cara kita mengkomunikasikannya dapat menggugah penerima? (Creative Communication)

Saat karyawan menyadari pentingnya komunikasi yang kreatif dan aspek manusia dalam berkomunikasi, maka dimensi baru yang penuh dengan inovasi yang menyenangkan akan muncul dalam tempat kerja.

A = ATMOSPHERE AND APPRECIATION FOR ALL
Charles Garfield pernah berkata, "Dalam lingkungan dimana kebutuhan manusia diperhatikan, dan bakat serta kreativitas dibiarkan berkembang, maka karyawan akan memberikan semua kemampuan yang mereka miliki." Pertanyaannya adalah,
- macam apakah suasana kerja yang ada dalam perusahaan anda?
- Bagaimanakah penampilan ruang tamu kantor anda?
- Bagaimana dengan gedung produksi anda?
- Apakah menciptakan suasana yang kreatif?
- Apakah para karyawan senang dengan pekerjaan mereka?

Dalam laporan tahunan mengenai apa yang dibutuhkan oleh karyawan dari pekerjaan mereka, jawaban nomor dua yang selalu muncul sejak tahun 1948 adalah "Penghargaan atas pekerjaan mereka". Lebih menarik lagi, jawaban "Gaji tinggi" berada di peringkat ke lima! Apakah anda mendorong adanya penghargaan semacam itu setiap hari di tempat kerja anda, baik melalui program formal atau pendekatan pribadi?

R = RESPECT AND REASON FOR BEING
Robert Greenleaf, Hyler Bracey, Peter Block, dan John Scherer adalah para pakar yang berbicara mengenai Kepemimpinan yang Melayani (Servant Leadership) dan pentingnya memanage dari dalam hati.

James Autry malah pernah berkata, "Manajemen yang baik adalah tentang cinta dalam porsi yang besar. Atau bila anda tidak merasa enak dengan istilah cinta, gunakan saja istilah "perhatian" (care) karena manajemen yang baik selalu melibatkan kegiatan memperhatikan orang, bukan memanipulasi mereka." Lalu, bagaimanakah bentuk kepemimpinan yang muncul di perusahaan anda?

Dalam setiap interaksi yang kita lakukan dengan setiap orang, kita memiliki pilihan untuk menciptakan kesan negatif, positif atau nol pada orang tersebut, tergantung bagaimana kita memperlakukannya.

Negatif berarti merendahkan orang lain, membuat mereka merasa tidak begitu penting dibanding kita di perusahaan ini.
Nol berarti kita hanya memperhatikan aspek bisnis (business level) saja.
Sedangkan positif berarti kita menjadikan orang lain merasa penting (human level) atau seringkali malah menggugah mereka.

Menciptakan kesan positif dalam setiap interaksi harus menjadi tujuan setiap dari karyawan. Kata Peter Block, "Pilihan yang kita tawarkan pada orang lain adalah apa yang menumbuhkan rasa tanggung jawab."

E = EMPATHY AND ENTHUSIASM
Bila karyawan mulai memahami pentingnya aspek manusia dalam setiap interaksi mereka, maka mereka bisa dapat mendengarkan bukan hanya lewat telinga saja namun juga melalui hati mereka. Kata Stephen Coveys, "Cobalah untuk mengerti terlebih dahulu, baru dimengerti."

Beberapa tahun lalu Francis Likert pernah berucap, "Bila ingin mencapai performance yang tinggi, maka seorang manajer perlu memiliki tujuan performance yang tinggi pula, serta antusiasme yang tinggi untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut." Apakah para manajer perusahaan anda memiliki antusiasme pada pentingnya pekerjaan mereka dan mengapa mereka perlu mengubah cara interaksi mereka.

Sebelum melakukan perubahan budaya perusahaan, anda harus memikat hati dan semangat orang sehingga mereka merasa memiliki rasa tanggung jawab pribadi sekaligus kekuatan untuk melakukan perubahan. Bila mereka benar-benar mengerti, maka mereka tidak akan merasa menjadi "korban mental" yang biasanya mengikuti bila seseorang merasa dibebani tugas tersebut. Dengan demikian, mereka bisa sungguh-sungguh berkreatif dalam melakukannya.
Semangat baru untuk mengirimkan paket CARE akan berdampak pada produkstivitas dan profit perusahaan anda dan akan memberika harapan yang telah lama mereka rindukan.

Barbara A. Blanz (diadaptasi dari Barbara Glanz Communications,Inc.)
Sumber: milis teknikindustri_ISTA@yahoogroups.com

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Strategic Management (Manajemen Strategis)

Strategic management is the art and science of formulating, implementing and evaluating cross-functional decisions that will enable an organization to achieve its objectives[1]. It is the process of specifying the organization's objectives, developing policies and plans to achieve these objectives, and allocating resources to implement the policies and plans to achieve the organization's objectives. Strategic management, therefore, combines the activities of the various functional areas of a business to achieve organizational objectives. It is the highest level of managerial activity, usually formulated by the Board of directors and performed by the organization's Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and executive team. Strategic management provides overall direction to the enterprise and is closely related to the field of Organization Studies. In the field of business administration it is possible mention to the "strategic consistency." According to Arieu (2007), "there is strategic consistency when the actions of an organization are consistent with the expectations of management, and these in turn are with the market and the context." ()

Strategi adalah alat untuk mencapai tujuan. Ada dua konsep yang berhubungan dengan strategi perusahaan, yaitu :
a. Distintive Competence, adalah tindakan yang dilakukan oleh perusahaan agar dapat melakukan kegiatan lebih baik dibandingkan dengan pesaingnya. Identifikasi distinctive competence meliputi : keahlian tenaga kerja dan kemampuan sumber daya.

b. Competitive Competence, adalah kegiatan spesifik yang dikembangkan oleh perusahaan agar lebih unggul dibandingkan dengan pesaingnya. Menurut Porter, ada tiga strategi yang dapat dilakukan perusahaan untuk memperoleh keunggulan bersaing, yaitu : Cost leadership, diferensiasi, dan fokus.

A.Tingkat-tingkat Strategi

1. Strategi Tingkat Korporasi (Corporate Strategy)
Strategi korporat adalah strategi yang disusun dalam suatu bisnis, di mana perusahaan akan bersaing dengan cara mengubah distintive competence menjadi competitive competence. Strategi ini berusaha menjawab dua pertanyaan, yaitu : bisnis apa yang diunggulkan untuk dapat bersaing? Dan bagaimana masing-masing kegiatan bisnis tersebut dapat dilakukan secara terintegrasi?
Sementara itu, Porter menyarankan bahwa dalam penyusunan strategi korporasi, kita perlu mengetahui keunggulan bersaing yang dimiliki, atau apa yang akan diciptakan, dan menempatkannya pada masing-masing unit bisnis.


Gambar 1. Kekuatan Persaingan Dalam Industri
(Menurut Michael Porter)

2.Strategi Tingkat Bisnis (Strategic Business Unit)
Strategi tingkat bisnis berupaya untuk menentukan bagaimana seharusnya suatu korporasi bersaing dalam setiap bisnis. SBU/UBS memiliki pengertian yang berbeda untuk setiap perusahaan. SBU/UBS dapat diartikan satu bisnis tunggal atau kelompok bisnis yang berdiri sendiri dan merumuskan strateginya sendiri.

3.Strategi Tingkat Fungsional
Strategi tingkat ini berusaha menjawab pertanyaan : bagaimana kita mendukung strategi tingkat bisnis?. Strategi fungsional lebih bersifat operasional karena akan langsung diimplementasikan oleh fungsi-fungsi manajemen yang ada dibawah tanggung jawabnya, seperti fungsi manajemen pemasaran, SDM, dan lain-lain.

B. Proses Manajemen Strategis

Proses manajemen strategis merupakan sebuah proses delapan langkah yang mencakup perencanaan strategis, pelaksanaan dan evaluasi. Meskipun keenam langkah pertama menggambarkan terjadinya perencanaan, tetapi pelaksanaan dan evaluasi juga sama pentingnya.
Adapun langkah-langkah tersebut adalah :
1.Mengidentifikasi misi, sasaran-sasaran, dan strategi-strategi organisasi sekarang ini.
Merumuskan misi organisasi memaksa para manajer untuk mengidentifikasi jangkauan-jangkauan produk-produknya atau jasa-jasanya dengan seksama. Penting juga untuk para manajer mengidentifikasi sasaran dan strategi yang sekarang digunakan. Sasaran merupakan dasar perencanaan dan memberi target kinerja yang dapat terukur yang diusahakan untuk dicapai para karyawan.

2.Menganalisis lingkungan
Menganalisis lingkungan merupakan langkah penting dalam proses itu, karena lingkungan sebuah organisasi, sebagian besar, membatasi pilihan-pilihan yang tersedia bagi manajemen. Sebuah strategi yang berhasil merupakan strategi yang sesuai dengan lingkungan.
Langkah ini telah selesai ketika manajemen memiliki pemahaman yang tepat terhadap apa yang sedang berlangsung di lingkungannya dan menyadari trend penting yang mungkin akan mempengaruhi operasi-operasinya.

3.Mengidentifiaksi peluang dan ancaman
Peluang adalah faktor-faktor lingkungan luar yang positif, sedang ancaman adalah yang negatif. Lingkungan yang sama dapat merupakan peluang bagi satu organisasi dan menjadi ancaman-ancaman bagi organisasi lain dalam industri yang sama karena perbedaan sumber daya manajemen.

4.Menganalisis sumber daya organisasi
Analisis internal memberi informasi penting tentang aset, keterampilan, dan aktivitas kerja spesifik dari sebuah organisasi. Setiap keterampilan atau sumber-sumber daya itu unggul dan unik, disebut kompetensi inti. Kompetensi inti (core competence) merupakan keterampilan utama menciptakan nilai, kemampuan-kemampuan, dan sumber daya dari suatu organisasi yang menentukan senjata-senjata persaingan organisasi itu.
Untuk memiliki kompetensi inti, perusahaan harus memiliki tiga kriteria : nilai bagi pelanggan (customer perceived value), diferensiasi bersaing (competitor differentiation), dan dapat diperluas (extendability).

5.Identifikasi kekuatan dan kelemahan
Kekuatan adalah kegiatan-kegiatan perusahaan yang berjalan baik atau sumber daya yang dikendalikannya. Sedangkan kelemahan adalah kegiatan-kegiatan perusahaan yang tidak berjalan dengan baik atau sumber daya yang dibutuhkan oleh perusahaan tetapi tidak dimiliki oleh perusahaan.
Penggabungan langkah tiga dengan lima menghasilkan suatu penilaian atau analisa SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, and Treath), sebab analisa ini menggabungkan kekuatan, kelemahan, dan ancaman organisasi tersebut untuk mencari suatu celah strategis yang dapat dimanfaatkan oleh organisasi tersebut.

6.Merumuskan strategi
Strategi perlu ditetapkan bagi tingkat korporasi, tingkat bisnis, dan tingkat fungsional. Para manajer perlu menyusun dan mengevaluasi alternatif-alternatif strategis dan kemudian memilih strategi-strategi yang cocok pada setiap tingkatan dan strategi yang memungkinkan organisasi untuk memanfaatkan kekuatan dan peluang lingkungannya secara baik.

7.Melaksanakan strategi
Sebuah strategi hanya bagus kalau dilaksanakan. Para manajer barangkali harus memilih, merekrut, melatih, menertibkan, memindah, mempromosikan, dan boleh jadi bahkan memecat karyawan-karyawan untuk mencapai sasaran-sasaran strategis organisasi tersebut.

8.Mengevaluasi hasil
Langkah akhir dalam proses manajemen strategis adalah mengevaluasi hasil. Tindakan-tindakan penyesuaian rencana strategis disusun setelah melakukan evaluasi hasil strategi terdahulu dan menentukan bahwa perlu diadakan perubahan-perubahan.

C.Kerangka Kerja Strategis Tingkat Korporasi
1.Strategi yang hebat (Grand Strategies)
Strategi ini terdiri dari :
a.strategi stabilitas
b.strategi pertumbuhan
c.strategi pengurangan
d.strategi kombinasi

2.Matriks Portofolio Korporasi
Dahulu merupakan pendekatan paling populer untuk menentukan strategi tingkat korporasi. Matriks ini dikembangkan oleh The Boston Consulting Group, sehingga dikenal matriks BCG. Matriks BCG adalah perangkat strategi untuk memberi pedoman pada keputusan alokasi sumber daya berdasarkan pangsa pasar dan pertumbuhan UBS.
Matriks BCG merupakan empat kelompok bisnis, yaitu :
a.Cash flow : bisnis yang memperlihatkan pertumbuhan rendah tetapi memiliki pangsa pasar besar.
b.Stars : bisnis yang memperlihatkan pertumbuhan tinggi dan memiliki pangsa pasar yang tinggi.
c.Question marks : bisnis yang memperlihatkan pertumbuhan tinggi dan memiliki pangsa pasar yang rendah.
d.Dogs : bisnis yang memperlihatkan pertumbuhan rendah dan memiliki pangsa pasar yang rendah.

D.Kerangka-kerangka Strategi Tingkat Bisnis
1. Peran Keunggulan Kompetitif, adalah hal-hal yang membedakan sebuah organisasi yaitu keunggulan yang tajam. Keunggulan kompetitif dapat muncul karena memiliki sesuatu yang tidak dimiliki oleh pesaing-pesaing lain.

2. TQM (Total Quality Management) sebagai keunggulan kompetitif

3. Strategi-strategi kompetitif
Strategi ini mengidentifikasikan tiga strategi umum yang dapat dipilih para manajer. Strategi-strategi tersebut adalah strategi kepemimpinan biaya, strategi diferensiasi dan strategi fokus.

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TIPS MEMOMPA SEMANGAT BERPRESTASI

Mengapa ada orang-orang yang mempunyai energi yang begitu besar untuk meraih sesuatu? Mengapa ada orang yang penuh gairah dalam menghadapi tantangan?
Mengapa ada orang yang sangat ingin berprestasi? Terlepas dari apa motivasi seseorang itu meraih prestasi, mereka selalu mempunyai kesamaan, yaitu, mempunyai energi yang melimpah, berani menghadapi tantangan dan ambisi besar untuk diwujudkan.

Itu kenapa banyak pakar perilaku berpendapat bahwa keberhasilan adalah sikap. Salah satu faktor yang menyebabkan seseorang terus gigih meraih prestasi adalah kemampuannya untuk memompakan semangat untuk berprestasi. Berikut ada beberapa tips untuk memompakan semangat berprestasi.

1. Jadilah diri sendiri.
Kalau ambisi anda berprestasi adalah untuk mengalahkan orang lain, anda akan segera kehabisan energi positif dalam bekerja. Dorongan yang muncul lebih banyak bersifat negatif yang dapat mengganggu kejernihan pandangan anda.
Jangan bandingkan diri anda dengan orang lain. Kenali saja siapa diri anda, dan jadilah diri anda sendiri. Itu jauh lebih sehat bagi kepribadian anda.

2. Menyusun visi, target, dan skedul pencapaian.
Susunlah gambaran besar yang ingin anda raih dalam di masa depan. Buatlah sesulit mungkin, namun percayalah anda bisa mencapainya. Lalu kembangkan ke dalam target-target jangka pendek, serta tentukan waktu kapan anda akan meraihnya. Perjalanan sejauh ribuan kilometer dicapai dengan selangkah demi selangkah.

3. Belajar terus, dan berusaha mempunyai keahlian khusus.
Jangan berhenti belajar, namun tak perlu mempelajari semuanya. Kenali apa kekuatan anda untuk menjadi seorang ahli agar anda mampu menuntaskan pekerjaan dengan hasil yang baik. Anda akan merasakan kesenangan jika anda mampu menyelesaikan pekerjaan sebaik-baiknya. Mempelajari semua hal memang baik untuk menambah wawasan dan kebijakan, namun jika anda tak punya sebuah keahlian yang menjadi keunikan diri anda sendiri, maka anda takkan tahu apa yang ingin anda kerjakan dengan baik. Hanya karena anda ahli, anda akan menetapkan standar yang tinggi. Sedangkan, standar tinggi adalah salah satu kualitas dari seorang yang berprestasi.

4. Melakukan apa yang anda sukai.
Lakukan apa yang anda cintai. Ini akan menumbuhkan semangat dan kesenangan dalam setiap pekerjaan. Anda akan temukan bahwa keberhasilan bukan sesuatu yang ada di depan sana, namun berjalan seiring dengan apa yang anda kerjakan.

5. Jangan menyia-nyiakan peluang.
Jangan terlalu banyak memikirkan masalah uang atau penghasilan yang anda peroleh. Jauh lebih penting anda memperoleh tanggung jawab yang sesuai dengan kemampuan anda. Lalu bersungguh-sungguh mengerjakannya. Pikirkan bagaimana anda bisa memperbaiki keadaan yang ada dalam tanggung jawab anda.
Seringkali keberhasilan besar bersembunyi di balik sebuah peluang yang kelihatannya sepele.

6.Temukan kegembiraan dalam setiap langkah.
Perhatikan anak-anak kecil belajar, mereka menunjukkan kegembiraan saat berangkat sekolah, saat di kelas, saat beristirahat, saat pulang bahkan saat mengerjakan pekerjaan rumah mereka. Temuka kegembiraan yang sama di setiap langkah anda. Jika anda tak menemukannya, mungkin anda berada di jalan yang keliru. Segera renungkan kembali apa yang ingin anda raih.

7. Berbagi atas keberhasilan yang bisa diraih.
Tak apa jika anda ingin menikmati sebuah keberhasilan kecil yang bisa anda raih. Namun, jangan semata-mata melakukannya sendiri. Bagilah dengan orang lain. Berbagi kegembiraan justru melipatgandakan kegembiraan anda. Ucapan selamat yang diberikan orang lain pada anda sangat efektif untuk memompa semangat anda meraih yang lebih baik lagi.

8. Tidak bersedih atas kegagalan.
Satu hal yang sangat meruntuhkan semangat adalah kegagalan. Namun, mereka yang mempunyai keinginan berprestasi yang tinggi, kegagalan justru memacu mereka untuk belajar dan berusaha lebih baik lagi. Terimalah kegagalan sebagaimana adanya. Buka kembali buku pelajaran anda, mungkin ada yang terlewatkan. Berlatih terus dan coba lagi. Keberhasilan selalu didahului oleh kegagalan. Itu mengapa orang bijak mengatakan, kegagalan adalah keberhasilan yang tertunda.

Bukan maksud mengajari, bukan maksud menggurui, berbagi pengalaman adalah hadiah terbaik yang dapat diberikan oleh seorang "teman".

Sumber: milis teknikindustri_ISTA@yahoogroups.com

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Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management strategy aimed at embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. TQM has been widely used in manufacturing, education, call centers, government, and service industries, as well as NASA space and science programs.

Definition
TQM is composed of three paradigms:
• Total: Involving the entire organization, supply chain, and/or product life cycle
• Quality: With its usual Definitions, with all its complexities (External Definition)
• Management: The system of managing with steps like Plan, Organize, Control, Lead, Staff, provisioning and the likes[citation needed].
As defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO):
"TQM is a management approach for an organization, centered on quality, based on the participation of all its members and aiming at long-term success through customer satisfaction, and benefits to all members of the organization and to society." ISO 8402:1994[citation needed]
One major aim is to reduce variation from every process so that greater consistency of effort is obtained. (Royse, D., Thyer, B., Padgett D., & Logan T., 2006)

In Japan, TQM comprises four process steps, namely:
1. Kaizen – Focuses on "Continuous Process Improvement", to make processes visible, repeatable and measurable.
2. Atarimae Hinshitsu – The idea that "things will work as they are supposed to" (for example, a pen will write).
3. Kansei – Examining the way the user applies the product leads to improvement in the product itself.
4. Miryokuteki Hinshitsu – The idea that "things should have an aesthetic quality" (for example, a pen will write in a way that is pleasing to the writer).[citation needed]

TQM requires that the company maintain this quality standard in all aspects of its business. This requires ensuring that things are done right the first time and that defects and waste are eliminated from operations.[citation needed]

A Comprehensive Definition
TQM Total Quality Management is the organization wide management of quality. We know that management consists of planning, organizing, directing, control, and assurance. Then, one has to define "total quality". Total quality is called total because it consists of 3 qualities: Quality of return to satisfy the needs of the shareholders, Quality of products TQM Article: http://www.betsa.ir/Cat/21.aspx

Origins
"Total Quality Control" was the key concept of Armand Feigenbaum's 1951 book, Quality Control: Principles, Practice, and Administration, in a chapter titled "Total Quality Control" Feigenbaum grabs on to an idea that sparked many scholars interest in the following decades, that would later be catapulted from Total Quality Control to Total Quality Management. W. Edwards Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip B. Crosby, and Kaoru Ishikawa, known as the big four, also contributed to the body of knowledge now known as Total Quality Management.

The American Society for Quality says that the term Total Quality Management was used by the U.S. Naval Air Systems Command "to describe its Japanese-style management approach to quality improvement."[2] This is consistent with the story that the United States Navy Personnel Research and Development Center began researching the use of statistical process control (SPC); the work of Juran, Crosby, and Ishikawa; and the philosophy of W. Edwards Deming to make performance improvements in 1984. This approach was first tested at the North Island Naval Aviation Depot.

TQM in manufacturing
Quality assurance through statistical methods is a key component in a manufacturing organization, where TQM generally starts by sampling a random selection of the product. The sample can then be tested for things that matter most to the end users. The causes of any failures are isolated, secondary measures of the production process are designed, and then the causes of the failure are corrected. The statistical distributions of important measurements are tracked. When parts' measures drift into a defined "error band", the process is fixed. The error band has usually a tighter distribution than the "failure band", so that the production process is fixed before failing parts can be produced.

It is important to record not just the measurement ranges, but what failures caused them to be chosen. In that way, cheaper fixes can be substituted later (say, when the product is redesigned) with no loss of quality. After TQM has been in use, it's very common for parts to be redesigned so that critical measurements either cease to exist, or become much wider.

It took people a while to develop tests to find emergent problems. One popular test is a "life test" in which the sample product is operated until a part fails. Another popular test is called "shake and bake", in which the product is mounted on a vibrator in an environmental oven, and operated at progressively more extreme vibration and temperatures until something fails. The failure is then isolated and engineers design an improvement.
A commonly-discovered failure is for the product to disintegrate. If fasteners fail, the improvements might be to use measured-tension nutdrivers to ensure that screws don't come off, or improved adhesives to ensure that parts remain glued.
If a gearbox wears out first, a typical engineering design improvement might be to substitute a brushless stepper motor for a DC motor with a gearbox.

TQM and contingency-based research
TQM has not been independent of its environment. In the context of management accounting systems (MCSs), Sim and Killough (1998) show that incentive pay enhanced the positive effects of TQM on customer and quality performance. Ittner and Larcker (1995) demonstrated that product focused TQM was linked to timely problem solving information and flexible revisions to reward systems. Chendall (2003) summarizes the findings from contingency-based research concerning management control systems and TQM by noting that “TQM is associated with broadly based MCSs including timely, flexible, externally focused information; close interactions between advanced technologies and strategy; and non-financial performance measurement.” (p.143)tqm its kind of process

TQM, just another Management fad
Abrahamson (1996) argued that fashionable management discourse such as Quality Circles tends to follow a lifecycle in the form of a bell curve. Ponzi and Koenig (2002) showed that the same can be said about TQM, which peaked between 1992 and 1996, while rapidly losing popularity in terms of citations after these years. Dubois (2002) argued that the use of the term TQM in management discourse created a positive utility regardless of what managers meant by it (which showed a large variation), while in the late 1990s the usage of the term TQM in implementation of reforms lost the positive utility attached to the mere fact of using the term and sometimes associations with TQM became even negative (Wilkinson et al 1998). Nevertheless, management concepts such as TQM leave their traces, as their core ideas can be very valuable (Hill and Wilkinson 1995). For example, Dubois (2002) showed that the core ideas behind the two management fads Reengineering and TQM, without explicit usage of their names, can work in a synergistic way.

From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Quality_Management

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Analytic Hierarchy Process

The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a structured technique for helping people deal with complex decisions. Rather than prescribing a "correct" decision, the AHP helps people to determine one. Based on mathematics and human psychology, it was developed by Thomas L. Saaty in the 1970s and has been extensively studied and refined since then. The AHP provides a comprehensive and rational framework for structuring a problem, for representing and quantifying its elements, for relating those elements to overall goals, and for evaluating alternative solutions. It is used
throughout the world in a wide variety of decision situations, in fields such as government, business, industry, healthcare, and education.

Several firms supply computer software to assist in applying the process.

Users of the AHP first decompose their decision problem into a hierarchy of more easily comprehended sub-problems, each of which can be analyzed independently. The elements of the hierarchy can relate to any aspect of the decision problem—tangible or intangible, carefully measured or roughly estimated, well- or poorly-understood—anything at all that applies to the decision at hand.

Once the hierarchy is built, the decision makers systematically evaluate its various elements, comparing them to one another in pairs. In making the comparisons, the decision makers can use concrete data about the elements, or they can use their judgments about the elements' relative meaning and importance. It is the essence of the AHP that human judgments, and not just the underlying information, can be used in performing the evaluations.

The AHP converts these evaluations to numerical values that can be processed and compared over the entire range of the problem. A numerical weight or priority is derived for each element of the hierarchy, allowing diverse and often incommensurable elements to be compared to one another in a rational and consistent way. This capability distinguishes the AHP from other decision making techniques.

In the final step of the process, numerical priorities are derived for each of the decision alternatives. Since these numbers represent the alternatives' relative ability to achieve the decision goal, they allow a straightforward consideration of the various courses of action.

Uses and applications

While it can be used by individuals working on straightforward decisions, AHP is most useful where teams of people are working on complex problems, especially those with high stakes, involving human perceptions and judgments, whose resolutions have long-term repercussions.It has unique advantages where important elements of the decision are difficult to quantify or compare, or where communication among team members is impeded by their different specializations, terminologies, or perspectives.

The applications of AHP to complex decision situations have numbered in the thousands, and have produced extensive results in problems involving planning, resource allocation, priority setting, and selection among alternatives. Many such applications are never reported to the world at large, because they take place at high levels of large organizations where security and privacy considerations prohibit their disclosure. But some uses of AHP are discussed in the literature. Recently these have included:
• Deciding how best to reduce the impact of global climate change (Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei)
• Quantifying the overall quality of software systems (Microsoft Corporation)
• Selecting university faculty (Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania)
• Deciding where to locate offshore manufacturing plants (University of Cambridge)
• Assessing risk in operating cross-country petroleum pipelines (American Society of Civil Engineers)
• Deciding how best to manage U.S. watersheds (U.S. Department of Agriculture)
AHP is sometimes used in designing highly specific procedures for particular situations, such as the rating of buildings by historic significance. It was recently applied to a project that uses video footage to assess the condition of highways in Virginia. Highway engineers first used it to determine the optimum scope of the project, then to justify its budget to lawmakers.
AHP is widely used in countries around the world. At a recent international conference on AHP, over 90 papers were presented from 19 countries, including the U.S., Germany, Japan, Chile, Malaysia, and Nepal. Topics covered ranged from Establishing Payment Standards for Surgical Specialists, to Strategic Technology Roadmapping, to Infrastructure Reconstruction in Devastated Countries. AHP was introduced in China in 1982, and its use in that country has expanded greatly since then—its methods are highly compatible with the traditional Chinese decision making framework, and it has been used for many decisions in the fields of economics, energy, management, environment, traffic, agriculture, industry, and the military.
Though using AHP requires no specialized academic training, the subject is widely taught at the university level—one AHP software provider lists over a hundred colleges and universities among its clients. AHP is considered an important subject in many institutions of higher learning, including schools of engineering and graduate schools of business. AHP is also an important subject in the quality field, and is taught in many specialized courses including Six Sigma, Lean Six Sigma, and QFD.

In China, nearly a hundred schools offer courses in AHP, and many doctoral students choose AHP as the subject of their research and dissertations. Over 900 papers have been published on the subject in that country, and there is at least one Chinese scholarly journal devoted exclusively to AHP.

Summary
The procedure can be summarized as:
1. The alternatives and the significant attributes are identified.
2. For each attribute, and each pair of alternatives, the decision makers specify their preference (for example, whether the location of alternative "A" is preferred to that of "B") in the form of a fraction between 1/9 and 9.
3. Decision makers similarly indicate the relative significance of the attributes. For example, if the alternatives are comparing potential real-estate purchases, the investors might say they prefer location over price and price over timing.
4. Each matrix of preferences is evaluated by using eigenvalues to check the consistency of the responses. This produces a "consistency coefficient" where a value of "1" means all preferences are internally consistent.[citation needed] This value would be lower, however, if a decision maker said X is preferred to Y, Y to Z but Z is preferred to X (such a position is internally inconsistent). It is this step that causes many users to believe that AHP is theoretically well founded.[citation needed]
5. A score is calculated for each alternative.

For further information, you can visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_Hierarchy_Process

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Quality Control

In engineering and manufacturing, quality control and quality engineering are involved in developing systems to ensure products or services are designed and produced to meet or exceed customer requirements. These systems are often developed in conjunction with other business and engineering disciplines using a cross-functional approach.

History
When the first specialized craftsmen arose manufacturing tools for others, the principle of quality control was simple: "let the buyer beware" (caveat emptor).
Early civil engineering projects, however, needed to be built to specifications. For instance, the four sides of the base of the Great Pyramid of Giza are perpendicular to within 3.5 arcseconds.
During the Middle Ages, guilds took the responsibility of quality control upon themselves.
Royal governments purchasing material were interested in quality control as customers. For instance, King John of England appointed a certain William Wrotham to supervise the construction and repair of ships. Some centuries later, but also in England, Samuel Pepys, Secretary to the Admiralty, appointed multiple such overseers.
The Industrial Revolution led to a system in which large groups of people performing a similar type of work were grouped together under the supervision of a foreman who also took on the responsibility to control the quality of work manufactured.
Quality Assurance has developed a good deal during the last 80-90 years (in about 20 year intervals) from its inception to the current state of the art.
Wartime production
During World War I, the manufacturing process became more complex, and foremen began to supervise large numbers of workers to ensure the quality of the work being produced. This period also introduced mass production and piecework, which created quality problems as workmen could now earn more money by the production of extra products, which in turn led to bad workmanship being passed on to the assembly lines.
Due to the large amount of bad workmanship being produced, the first full time inspectors were introduced into the large-scale modern factory. These full time inspectors were the real beginning of inspection quality control, and this was the beginning of the large inspection organizations of the 1920s and 1930s, which were separately organised from production and big enough to be headed by superintendents.
The systematic approach to quality started in industrial manufacture during the 1930s, mostly in the USA, when some attention was given to the cost of scrap and rework. With the impact of mass production, which was required during the Second World War, it became necessary to introduce a more stringent form of quality control which can be identified as Statistical Quality Control, or SQC. Some of the initial work for SQC is credited to Walter A. Shewhart of Bell Labs, starting with his famous one-page memorandum of 1924.
This system came about with the realisation that quality cannot be inspected into an item. By extending the inspection phase and making inspection organizations more efficient, it provides inspectors with control tools such as sampling and control charts.
SQC had a significant contribution in that it provided a sampling inspection system rather than a 100 per cent inspection. This type of inspection however did lead to a lack of realisation to the importance of the engineering of product quality.
For example, if you have a basic sampling scheme with an acceptance level of 4%, what happens is you have a ratio of 96% products released onto the market with 4% defective items – this obviously is a fair risk for any company/customer – unless you happen to be one of the unfortunate buyers of a defective item.
Post-war
After World War II, the United States continued to apply the concepts of inspection and sampling to remove defective product from production lines. However, there were many individuals trying to lead U.S. industries towards a more collaborative approach to quality. Excluding the U.S., many countries' manufacturing capabilities were destroyed during the war. This placed American business in a position where advances in the collaborative approaches to quality were essentially ignored.
After World War II, the U.S. sent General Douglas MacArthur to oversee the re-building of Japan. During this time, General MacArthur invited two key individuals in the development of modern quality concepts: W. Edwards Deming and Joseph Juran. Both individuals promoted the collaborative concepts of quality to Japanese business and technical groups, and these groups utilized these concepts in the redevelopment of the Japanese economy.
Quality Assurance
Quality assurance covers all activities from design, development, production, installation, servicing and documentation. This introduced the rules: "fit for purpose" and "do it right the first time". It includes the regulation of the quality of raw materials, assemblies, products and components; services related to production; and management, production, and inspection processes.
One of the most widely used paradigms for QA management is the PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) approach, also known as the Shewhart cycle.
Failure Testing
A valuable process to perform on a whole consumer product is failure testing, the operation of a product until it fails, often under stresses such as increasing vibration, temperature and humidity. This exposes many unanticipated weaknesses in a product, and the data is used to drive engineering and manufacturing process improvements. Often quite simple changes can dramatically improve product service, such as changing to mold-resistant paint or adding lock-washer placement to the training for new assembly personnel.
Statistical Control
Many organizations use statistical process control to bring the organization to Six Sigma levels of quality, in other words, so that the likelihood of an unexpected failure is confined to six standard deviations on the normal distribution. This probability is less than four one-millionths. Items controlled often include clerical tasks such as order-entry as well as conventional manufacturing tasks.
Traditional statistical process controls in manufacturing operations usually proceed by randomly sampling and testing a fraction of the output. Variances of critical tolerances are continuously tracked, and manufacturing processes are corrected before bad parts can be produced.
Company Quality
During the 1980s, the concept of “company quality” with the focus on management and people came to the fore. It was realised that, if all departments approached quality with an open mind, success was possible if the management led the quality improvement process.
The company-wide quality approach places an emphasis on three aspects :-
1. Elements such as controls, job management, adequate processes, performance and integrity criteria and identification of records
2. Competence such as knowledge, skills, experience, qualifications
3. Soft elements, such as personnel integrity, confidence, organisational culture, motivation, team spirit and quality relationships.
The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects are deficient in any way.
The approach to quality management given here is therefore not limited to the manufacturing theatre only but can be applied to any business activity:
• Design work
• Administrative services
• Consulting
• Banking
• Insurance
• Computer software
• Retailing
• Transportation
It comprises a quality improvement process, which is generic in the sense it can be applied to any of these activities and it establishes a behaviour pattern, which supports the achievement of quality.
This in turn is supported by quality management practices which can include a number of business systems and which are usually specific to the activities of the business unit concerned.
In manufacturing and construction activities, these business practices can be equated to the models for quality assurance defined by the International Standards contained in the ISO 9000 series and the specified Specifications for quality systems.
Still, in the system of Company Quality, the work being carried out was shop floor inspection which did not control the major quality problems. This led to quality assurance or total quality control, which has come into being recently.
Total Quality Control
Total Quality Control is the most necessary inspection control of all in cases where, despite statistical quality control techniques or quality improvements implemented, sales decrease.
The major problem which leads to a decrease in sales was that the specifications did not include the most important factor, “What the customer required”.
The major characteristics, ignored during the search to improve manufacture and overall business performance were:
• Reliability
• Maintainability
• Safety
As the most important factor had been ignored, a few refinements had to be introduced:
1. Marketing had to carry out their work properly and define the customer’s specifications.
2. Specifications had to be defined to conform to these requirements.
3. Conformance to specifications i.e. drawings, standards and other relevant documents, were introduced during manufacturing, planning and control.
4. Management had to confirm all operators are equal to the work imposed on them and holidays, celebrations and disputes did not affect any of the quality levels.
5. Inspections and tests were carried out, and all components and materials, bought in or otherwise, conformed to the specifications, and the measuring equipment was accurate, this is the responsibility of the QA/QC department.
6. Any complaints received from the customers were satisfactorily dealt with in a timely manner.
7. Feedback from the user/customer is used to review designs.
8. Consistent data recording and assessment and documentation integrity.
9. Product and/or process change management and notification.
If the original specification does not reflect the correct quality requirements, quality cannot be inspected or manufactured into the product.
For instance, all parameters for a pressure vessel should include not only the material and dimensions but operating, environmental, safety, reliability and maintainability requirements.
To conclude, the above forms the basis from which the philosophy of Quality Assurance has evolved, and the achievement of quality or the “fitness-for-purpose” is “Quality Awareness” throughout the company.

From: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_Control

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Definition of Ergonomy

ergonomics, the engineering science concerned with the physical and psychological relationship between machines and the people who use them. The ergonomicist takes an empirical approach to the study of human-machine interactions. The objective is to improve the efficiency of operation by taking into account a typical person's size, strength, speed, visual acuity, and physiological stresses, such as fatigue, speed of decision making, and demands on memory and perception. Applications range from the design of work areas (including office furniture, automobile interiors, and aircraft cockpits) to the disposition of switches and gauges on the control panels of machinery to determining the size, shape, and layout of keys on computer terminals and character height, color, and clarity on video displays. The field of ergonomics is also sometimes called human or human-factors engineering, engineering psychology, and biotechnology.

ergonomics
or human engineering or human factors engineering

Profession of designing machines, tools, and work environments to best accommodate human performance and behaviour. It aims to improve the practicality, efficiency, and safety of a person working with a single machine or device (e.g., using a telephone, driving a car, or operating a computer terminal). Taking the user into consideration has probably always been a part of tool design; for example, the scythe, one of the oldest and most efficient human implements, shows a remarkable degree of ergonomic engineering. Examples of common devices that are poorly designed ergonomically include the snow shovel and the computer or typewriter keyboard.

For more information on ergonomics, visit Britannica.com. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The science of people-machine relationships. An ergonomically designed product implies that the device blends smoothly with a person's body or actions.


Although ergonomically designed seats, keyboards and mice are important, perhaps the most beneficial aspect of ergonomics is teaching people to get up periodically and stretch. (Redrawn from original illustration courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.)

ergonomics - The study of the design and arrangement of equipment so that people will interact with the equipment in healthy, comfortable, and efficient manner. As related to computer equipment, ergonomics is concerned with such factors as the physical design of the keyboard, screens, and related hardware, and the manner in which people interact with these hardware devices.

From: http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Ergonomy

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Easy House of Quality Matrix Software

To Create a house of quality matrix, or any other type of business graphic, in minutes you can visit http://www.smartdraw.com/specials/house-of-quality-matrix.htm

It's very simple, just 3 steps:

Step 1: Click on the Free Download! button.

Step 2: You will be asked to save the file to disk. Choose Save File and the file will be saved to your desktop (or to the folder you set for downloads in your browser options).

Step 3: When the download is complete, simply double-click the SmartDraw installation icon on your desktop (or download folder). SmartDraw will then install automatically.

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House of Quality

House of Quality is a graphic tool for defining the relationship between customer desires and the firm/product capabilities. It is a part of the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and it utilizes a planning matrix to relate what the customer wants to how a firm (that produce the products) is going to meet those wants. It looks like a House with correlation matrix as its roof, customer wants versus product features as the main part, competitor evaluation as the porch etc. It is based on "the belief that products should be designed to reflect customers' desires and tastes" (Hauser & Clausing 1988). It also is reported to increase cross functional integration within organizations using it, especially between marketing, engineering and manufacturing.

The basic structure is a table with "Whats" as the labels on the left and "Hows" across the top. The roof is a diagonal matrix of "Hows vs. Hows" and the body of the house is a matrix of "Whats vs. Hows". Both of these matrices are filled with indicators of whether the interaction of the specific item is a strong positive, a strong negative, or somewhere in between. Additional annexes on the right side and bottom hold the "Whys" (market research, etc.) and the "How Muches". Rankings based on the Whys and the correlations can be used to calculate priorities for the Hows.

House of Quality analysis can also be cascaded, with "Hows" from one level becoming the "Whats" of a lower level; as this progresses the decisions get closer to the engineering/manufacturing details.

A Flash tutorial exists showing the build process of the traditional QFD "House of Quality" (HOQ). There are also free House of Quality templates available that walk users through the process of creating a House of Quality.

For further information about HOQ, you can visit http://www.qfdonline.com/

From: Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Quality

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Quality Function Deployment

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) was originally developed by Yoji Akao in 1966 when the author combined his work in quality assurance and quality control points with function deployment used in Value Engineering. Mr. Akao described QFD as a “method to transform user demands into design quality, to deploy the functions forming quality, and to deploy methods for achieving the design quality into subsystems and component parts, and ultimately to specific elements of the manufacturing process.”

QFD is designed to help planners focus on characteristics of a new or existing product or service from the viewpoints of market segments, company, or technology-development needs. The technique yields graphs and matrices.
QFD has been used by several corporations and organizations.

The technique
1. Identify customer needs and wants as voice of the customer (VOC)
2. Identify the engineering characteristics of products or services that meets VOC
3. Setting development targets and test methods for the products or services
QFD helps transform customer needs (the voice of the customer [VOC]) into engineering characteristics (and appropriate test methods) for a product or service, prioritizing each product or service characteristic while simultaneously setting development targets for product or service.

Areas of application


Picture: QFD House of Quality for Enterprise Product Development Processes

QFD is applied in a wide variety of services, consumer products, military needs (such as the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter), and emerging technology products. The technique is also used to identify and document competitive marketing strategies and tactics (see example QFD House of Quality for Enterprise Product Development, at right). QFD is considered a key practice of Design for Six Sigma (DFSS - as seen in the referenced roadmap). It is also implicated in the new ISO 9000:2000 standard which focuses on customer satisfaction.

Results of QFD have been applied in Japan and elsewhere into deploying the high-impact controllable factors in Strategic planning and Strategic management (also known as Hoshin Kanri, Hoshin Planning, or Policy Deployment).

Acquiring market needs by listening to the Voice of Customer (VOC), sorting the needs, and numerically prioritizing them (using techniques such as the Analytic Hierarchy Process) are the early tasks in QFD. Traditionally, going to the Gemba (the "real place" where value is created for the customer) is where these customer needs are evidenced and compiled.

While many books and articles on "how to do QFD" are available, there is a relative paucity of example matrices available. QFD matrices become highly proprietary due to the high density of product or service information found therein.
Notable U.S. companies using QFD techniques include the U.S. automobile manufacturers (GM, Ford, Daimler Chrysler) and their suppliers, IBM, Raytheon,General Electric,Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and many others.[citation needed]

History
While originally developed for manufacturing industries, interest in the use of QFD-based ideas in software development commenced with work by R. J. Thackeray and G. Van Treeck, for example in Object-oriented programming and use case driven software development.

Since its early use in the United States, QFD met with initial enthusiasm then plummeting popularity when it was discovered that much time could be wasted if poor group decision making techniques were employed.[citation needed] Organizational culture/corporate culture has an effect on the ability to change organizational human processes and on the sustainability of the changes. In particular, in organizations exhibiting strong cultural norms and rich sets of tacit assumptions that prevent objective discussion of historical courses of action, QFD may be resisted due to its ability to expose tacit assumptions and unspoken rules.[citation needed] It has been suggested that a learning organization can more easily overcome these issues due to the more transparent nature of the organizational culture and to the readiness of the membership to discuss relevant cultural norms.[citation needed]

Techniques and tools based on QFD

House of Quality
House of Quality appeared in 1972 in the design of an oil tanker by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.[citation needed] Akao has reiterated numerous times that a House of Quality is not QFD, it is just an example of one tool.

A Flash tutorial exists showing the build process of the traditional QFD "House of Quality" (HOQ). (Although this example may violate QFD principles, the basic sequence of HOQ building are illustrative.) There are also free QFD templates available that walk users through the process of creating a House of Quality.

Other tools extend the analysis beyond quality to cost, technology, reliability, function, parts, technology, manufacturing, and service deployments.

In addition, the same technique can extend the method into the constituent product subsystems, configuration items, assemblies, and parts. From these detail level components, fabrication and assembly process QFD charts can be developed to support statistical process control techniques.

Pugh concept selection
Pugh Concept Selection can be used in coordination with QFD to select a promising product or service configuration from among listed alternatives.

Relationship to other techniques
This technique somewhat resembles Management by objectives (MBO), but adds a significant element in the goal setting process, called "catchball". Use of these Hoshin techniques by U.S. companies such as Hewlett Packard have been successful in focusing and aligning company resources to follow stated strategic goals throughout an organizational hierarchy.

Since the early introduction of QFD, the technique has been developed to shorten the time span and reduce the required group efforts (such as Richard Zultner's Blitz QFD).

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment

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Kepemimpinan (Leadership)

Pengertian Kepemimpinan
Seperti manajemen kepemimpinan (leadership) telah didefinisikan dengan berbagai cara yang berbeda dan oleh orang yang berbeda pula. Berikut beberapa definisi kepemimpinan :

1. Menurut Ralf M. Stogdill
Kepemimpinan manajerial sebagai proses mengarahkan dan mempengaruhi kegiatan yang berhubungan dengan tugas dari anggota kelompok. Ada tiga implikasi yang penting dari definisi ini yaitu:
• Kepemimpinan harus melibatkan orang lain, bawahan atau pengikut.
• Kepemimpinan melibatkan distribusi yang tidak merata dari kekuasaan diantara pemimpin dan anggota kelompok.
• Selain secara sah dapat mengarahkan bawahan atau pengikut mereka, pemimpin juga dapat mempunyai pengaruh.

2. Menurut Stoner
Kepemimpinan manajerial dapat didefinisikan sebagai suatu proses pengarahan dan pemberian pengaruh pada kegiatan – kegiatan dari sekelompok anggota yang saling berhubungan tugasnya.

3. Menurut Prof. Sukanto Reksohadiprojo
Kepemimpinan ialah proses memanfaatkan kekuasaan untuk mendapatkan pengaruh pribadi.

4. Menurut Dubin
Kepemimpinan adalah aktivitas para pemegang kekuasaan dan membuat keputusan.

5. Menurut Humphill
Kepemimpinan adalah langkah pertama yang hasilnya berupa pola interaksi kelompok yang konsisten dan bertujuan menyelesaikan problem – problem yang saling berkaitan.

Kepemimpinan adalah bagian penting manajemen, tetapi tidak sama dengan menejemen. Kepemimpinan merupakan kemampuan yang dimiliki seseorang untuk mempengaruhi orang lain agar bekerja mencapai tujuan dan sasaran. Usaha mempengaruhi ini merupakan proses merubah sikap dan perilaku seseorang sebagai hasil atau tuntutan (langsung ataupun tidak) seseorang atau sekelompok orang lain sehingga produktivitas dapat ditingkatkan.
Seringkali pengaruh didasarkan pada kekuasaan (power), tetapi menurut Scot and Mirchell pengaruh merupakan suatu transaksi social dimana seseorang atu sekelompok orang lain melakukan kegiatan sesuai dengan harapan mereka yang mempengaruhi. Jadi proses mempengaruhi tidak selalu berdasarkan kekuasaan, ada cara – cara atau metode lain mendapatkan pengaruh. Proses mempengaruhi meliputi tiga unsur yaitu:
• Orang yang mempengaruhi
• Metode mempengaruhi
• Orang yang dipengaruhi

Teori Kepemimpinan
Teori kepemimpinan ini sangat berkaitan dengan efektivitas suatu organisasi dalam mencapai tujuannya dengan menjalankan fungsi – fungsi manajerialnya. Dewasa ini dikenal berbagai teori kepemimpinan yang akan dikemukakan beberapa teori sebagai berikut:

1. Teori Berdasarkan Ciri – Ciri
Salah satu teori kepemimpinan yang sudah lama dianut di kalangan pakar dan tokoh organisasi ialah teori kepemimpinan berdasarkan ciri – ciri yang seyogyanya dimiliki setiap orang yang menduduki jabatan kepemimpinan. Ciri –ciri tersebut antara lain:
• Pengetahuan yang luas.
• Kemampuan bertumbuh dan berkembang
• Sifat yang inkuisitif
• Kemampuan analitik
• Daya ingat yang kuat
• Kapasitas integrative
• Keterampilan berkomunikasi secara efektif
• Keterampilan mendidik
• Rasionalitas
• Obyektivitas
• Pragmatisme
• Kemampuan menentukan skala prioritas
• Kemampuan membedakan yang urgen dan yang penting
• Rasa tepat waktu
• Rasa kohensi yang tinggi
• Naluri relevansi
• Keteladanan
• Kesediaan menjadi pendengar yang baik
• Adaptabilitas
• Fleksibilitas
• Ketegasan
• Orientasi masa depan
• Sikap yang antisipatif




Ada dua sifat atau ciri utama yang perlu dimiliki oleh pemimpin menurut Chester I Barnard – The function of the executive
a. sifat – sifat pribadi yang meliputi : fisik, kecakapan (skill), teknologi, daya tanggap (perception), pengetahuan (knowledge), daya ingat (memory), imajinasi (imagination).
b. sifat – sifat pribadi yang mempunyai watak yang lebih subjektif, yaitu keunggulan seorang pemimpin di dalam :
keyakinan (determination)
ketekunan (persistence)
daya tahan (endurance)
keberanian (courage)

2. Teori Ketergantungan pada keadaan
Teori ini dikenal dengan nama teori Contingency. Inti pemikiran yang terkandung dalam teori ini ialah bahwa efektivitas kepemimpinan seseorang dalam suatu organisasi sangat tergantung pada kemampuan menyesuaikan gaya kepemimpinan yang menjadi karakteristik utamanya dengan tuntutan pelaksanaan tugas yang harus terselenggara dalam organisasi.

3. Teori Jalan Tujuan
Setiap pemimpin menyadari bahwa salah satu alasan para bawahannya menggabungkan diri dengan organisasi ialah agar berbagai tujuan pribadinya tercapai, artinya dengan mengarahkan waktu, tenaga dan pengetahuan atau keterampilannya ia akan memperoleh imbalan tertentu yang memungkinkan untuk memuaskan kebutuhan – kebutuhannya. Menurut teori ini para bawahan tidak selalu mampu mengidentifikasikan berbagai kebutuhan secara tepat, karena itu setiap pemimpin harus mampu untuk menunjukkan jalan yang tepat untuk mengantisipasinya kepada bawahan.



4. Teori Keperilakuan
Ditinjau dari sudut ini, dua dimensi yang menonjol dalam persepsi seorang manager ialah :
• Prakarsanya dalam menentukan struktur tugas harus dilaksanakn para bawahannya.
• Tingkat perhatian yang diberikan kepada bawahannya dengan berbagai tujuan, harapan, cita – cita, keinginan, kepentingan, dan kebutuhannya.

5. Teori Situasional
Dalam teori ini, kepemimpinan bergantung pada situasi tugas (kompleksitas, jenis, teknologi) serta gaya norma kelompok, rentang kendali, ancaman, tekanan, dan budaya organisasi.
Kepemimpinan situasional

6. Teori Pimpinan – Partisipasi
Teori ini berkisar pada pandangan bahwa analisa terakhir efektivitas seorang manajer sangat tergantung pada tingkat kemampuannya untuk mengikutsertakan para bawahannya dalam seluruh proses manajemen, terutama dalam proses pengambilan keputusan.

7. Teori Penerimaan
Teori ini dikenal dengan istilah Acceptance Theory, yang intinya terletak pada pendapat yang mengatakan bahwa efektivitas kepemimpinan seseorang tercermin dari pengakuan dan penerimaan orang lain terhadap kepemimpinan yang bersangkutan.

Tipologi Kepemimpinan
Banyak gaya yang dewasa ini digunakan untuk mengidentifikasikan tipe – tipe pemimpin. Salah satu tipologi yang umum dikenal ialah yang menyatakan bahwa para pejabat pimpinan pada dasarnya di kategorikan lima tipe, yaitu :

1.Tipe Otokratik
Dalam hal ini pengambilan keputusan seorang manajer yang otokratik akan bertindak sendiri dan memberitahukan kepada bawahannya bahwa ia telah mengambil keputusan tertentu dan para bawahannya itu hanya berperan sebagai pelaksana karena mereka tidak dilibatkan sama sekali dalam proses pengambilan keputusan. Dalam memelihara hubungan dengan para bawahannya, manajer yang otokratik biasanya menggunakan pendekatan formal berdasarkan kedudukan dan statusnya. Seorang pemimpin yang bergaya otokratik biasanya berorientasi pada kekuasaan, bukan berorientasi relasional. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa gaya otokratik buka yang didambakan oleh para bawahan dalam mengelola suatu organisasi karena unsur manusia sering diabaikan.

2. Tipe Paternalistik
Seorang pimpinan yang paternalistic dalam menjalankan organisasi menunjukkan kecenderungan – kecenderungan sebagai berikut:
Dalam hal pengambilan keputusan kecenderungannya ialah menggunakan cara mengambila keputusan sendiri, kemudianmenjual kepada para bawahannya tanpa melibatkan para bawahan dalam pengambilan keputusan.
Hubungan dengan bawahan lebih banyak bersifat bapak dan anak.
Dalam menjalankan fungsi – fungsi kepemimpinannya, pada umumnya bertindak atas dasar pemikiran keutuhan fisik para bawahannya sudah terpenuhi. Apabila sudah terpenuhi maka para bawahan akan mencurahkan perhatian pada pelaksanaan tugas yang menjadi tanggung jawabnya.
Orientasi kepemimpinan dengan gaya paternalistic ditujukan pada dua hal, yaitu penyelesaian tugas dan terpeliharanya hubungan baik dengan para bawahannya sebagaimana seorang bapak akan selalu berusaha memelihara hubungan yang serasi denga anak –anaknya.



3. Tipe Kharismatik
Pemahaman yang lebih mendalam tentang kepemimpinan yang bersifat kharismatik menunjukkan bahwa sepanjang persepsi yang dimilikinya tentang keseimbangan antar pelaksanaan tugas dan pemeliharaan hubungan dengan para nawahan seorang pemimpin kharismatik nampaknya memberikan penekanan pada dua hal tersebut, artinya ia berusaha agar tugas – tugas terselenggara denga sebaik – baiknya dan sekaligus memberikan kesan bahwa pemeliharaan hubungan dengan para bawahan didasarkan pada relasional dan bukan orientasi kekuasaan.

4. Tipe Laissez Faire
Persepsi pimpinan yang laissez faire tentang pentingnya pemeliharaan keseimbangan antara orientasi pelaksanaan tugas dan orientasi pemeliharaan hubungan sering terlihat bahwa aksentuasi diberikan pada hubungan ketimbang pada penyelesaian tugas. Titik tolak pemikiran yang digunakan ialah bahwa jika dalam organisasi terdapat hubungan yang intim antara seorang pemimpin denga para bawahan, dengan sendirinya para bawahan itu akan terdorong kuat untuk menyelesaikan tugas – tugas yang diberikan kepadanya secara bertanggung jawab. Masalahnya terletak pada persepsi pimpinan yang didasarkan pada asumsi – asumsi tertentu yang tidak sesuai dengan sifat dasar manusia.


5. Tipe Demokratik
Pandangan yang dominan tentang tipe kepemimpinan yang demokratik yang dipandang paling ideal. Meskipun tidak ada jaminan bahwa organisasi akan berjalan mulus. Pada umumnya disadari bahwa ada biaya yang harus dipikul oleh organisasi dengan adanya kepemimpinan yang demokratik.
Cirri pemimpin yang demokratik dalam hal pengambilan keputusan tercermin pada tindakannya mengikutsertakan para bawahan dalam seluruh proses pengambilan keputusan. Pemeliharaan hubungan tipe demokratik biasanya memberikan penekanan kuat pada adanya hubungan yang serasi, dalam arti terpeliharanya keseimbangan antara hubunga yang formal dan informal. Seorang pemimpin yang demokratik cenderung memperlakukan para bawahannya sebagai rekan kerja, juga menjaga keseimbangan antara orientasi penyelesaian tugas dan orientasi hubungan yang bersifat relasional.

Faktor - Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi Efektivitas Kepemimpinan
Faktor - faktor yang mempengaruhi efektivitas kepemimpinan menurut James AF Stoner yaitu :
• Kepribadian, pengalaman masa lalu dan harapan pemimpin
• Harapan dan perilaku para atasan
• Karakteristik, harapan dan perilaku bawahan
• Kebutuhan tugas
• Iklim dan kebijaksanaan organisasi
• Harapan dan perilaku rekan

Bagaimana menjadi pemimpin yang efektif
• Memahami kepemimpinan yang efektif
• Memaksimalkan fleksibilitas dan pilihan
• Menghilangkan kesenjangan persepsi
• Memotivasi staf
• Bertanya secara efektif
• Mendengarkan secara aktif
• Membangun kreativitas
• Memperbaiki kinerja staf
• Membangun sebuah tim
• Bereaksi terhadap perubahan
• Memahami preferensi perubahan diri sendiri
• Menelaah dan merencanakan


DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Handoko, Hani T.1984. Manajemen, BPFE – Yogyakarta
Djatmiko, Yayat Hayati. 2004. Perilaku Organisasi, Alfabeta – Bandung
Wahjosumidjo. 1987. Kepemimpinan Dan Motivasi, Ghalia Indonesia – Jakarta
Eales, Ruper

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